+- نادي الفكر العربي (http://www.nadyelfikr.com)
+-- المنتدى: الســــــــاحات العامـــــــة (http://www.nadyelfikr.com/forumdisplay.php?fid=3)
+--- المنتدى: قضايا اجتماعيــــــة (http://www.nadyelfikr.com/forumdisplay.php?fid=60)
+---- المنتدى: اللغـات الأجنبيــة (http://www.nadyelfikr.com/forumdisplay.php?fid=16)
+---- الموضوع: من تاريخ مؤسسة الزواج -في الغرب- (/showthread.php?tid=22234)
من تاريخ مؤسسة الزواج -في الغرب- - skeptic - 12-12-2005
The History of Marriage as an Institution
by Larry R. Peterson, Ph.D
©1997, Larry R. Peterson
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Virtually all scholars agree that we have witnessed a major transition in the meaning of marriage in the years from 1600 to 1995. In 1600, marriage for almost all Europeans and Europeans in America was primarily an economic arrangement negotiated between families in which family considerations of status, future economic stability, and prosperity were the most important considerations in selecting a potential spouse. By1995, most Americans consider the primary purpose of marriage to be a commitment to emotional and psychological support between two individuals.
Here are hisorical notations about some of the dramatic changes in the legal structure of marriage in Western Europe and the United States.
From the 5th to the 14th centuries, the Roman Catholic Church conducted special ceremonies to bless same-sex unions which were almost identical for those to bless heterosexual unions. At the very least, these were spiritual, if not sexual, unions.
In 1076, Pope Alexander II issued a decree prohibiting marriages between couples who were more closely related than 6th cousins.
In the 16th century, servants and day laborers were not allowed to marry in Bavaria and Austria unless they had the permission of local political authorities. This law was not finally abolished in Austria until 1921.
From the 1690s to the 1870s, "wife sale" was common in rural and small-town England. To divorce his wife, a husband could present her with a rope around her neck in a public sale to another man.
Marriage was strictly a civil and not an ecclesiastical ceremony for the Puritans in Massachusetts Bay until 1686.
The Pilgrims outlawed courtship of a daughter or a female servant unless consent was first obtained from parents or master.
Until 1662, there was no penalty for interracial marriages in any of the British colonies in North America. In 1662, Virginia doubled the fine for fornication between interracial couples. In 1664, Maryland became the first colony to ban interracial marriages. By 1750, all southern colonies, plus Massachusetts and Pennsylvania outlawed interracial marriages.
Under English common law, and in all American colonies and states until the middle of the 19th century, married women had no legal standing. They could not own property, sign contracts, or legally control any wages they might earn.
In 1848, New York became the first state to pass a Married Woman's Property Act, guaranteeing the right of married women to own property.
Throughout most of the 19th century, the minimum age of consent for sexual intercourse in most American states was 10 years. In Delaware it was only 7 years.
As late as 1930, twelve states allowed boys as young as 14 and girls as young as 12 to marry (with parental consent).
As late as 1940, married women were not allowed to make a legal contract in twelve states.
In 1967, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down state anti-miscegenation laws in Loving v. Virginia. As a result of the decision, Virginia and fifteen other states had their anti-miscegenation laws declared unconstitutional. Those states were: Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and West Virginia.
In the fifteen years prior to the decision, fourteen states had repealed their anti-miscegenation laws. Those fourteen states were: Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Indiana, Maryland, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming.
In 1978, New York became the first state to outlaw rape in marriage. By 1990, only a total of ten states outlawed rape in marriage. In thirty-six states rape in marriage was a crime only in certain circumstances. In four states, rape in marriage was never a crime.
These examples, and there are more, clearly document that marriage has not been an unchanging institution with unchanging definitions of who can marry and under what circumstances. Those who claim otherwise distort the historical record.
Footnotes
Edward Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family, (New York: Basic Books, 1975)
Carl N. Degler, At Odds: Women and the Family in America from the Revolution to the Present, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980)
Michael Mitterauer and Reinhard Sieder, The European Family: Patriarchy to Partnership from the Middle Ages to the Present (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982)
Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life, (New York: MacMillan, 1988)
John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America, (New York: Harper & Row, 1988)
John Boswell, Same-Sex Unions in Premodern Europe, (New York: Villard Books, 1994)
Jack Goody, The Development of the Family and Marriage in Europe, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983) pp. 136-138
Mitterauer and Sieder, p. 123
John R. Gillis, For Better, For Worse: British Marriages, 1600 to the Present, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985) pp. 211-217
Edmund S. Morgan, The Puritan Family: Religion and Domestic Relations in Seventeenth Century New England. rev. ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1966) p. 32
John Demos, A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970) p. 154
D'Emilio and Freedman, pp. 34-36
Sara M. Evans, Born for Liberty: A History of Women in America, (New York: Free Press, 1989), p. 22.
Evans, p. 94
Morton Keller, Affairs of State: Public Life in Late Nineteenth Century America. (Cambridge, MA.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977), p. 465
Mintz and Kellogg, p. 126
Degler, p. 333
Loving v. Virginia, 388 US 1, 18 L ed 2d, United States Supreme Court Reports, October Term, 1966, Lawyers' Edition, Second Series, Volume 18 (Rochester, N.Y.: Lawyers Cooperative Publishing Company, 1968) p.1014n.
Jane Sherron De Hart and Linda K. Kerber, "Gender and The New Women's History," in Linda K. Kerber and Jane Sherron De Hart, eds. Women's America: Refocusing the Past, 4th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995) p. 13
Article © 1997, Larry R. Peterson, Ph.D.
Larry R. Peterson is a full professor, chairs the Dept. of History, and may be reached at: Minard Hall 412J, Box 5075, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58105-5075
phone: 701-231-8824
fax: 701-231-1047
email: lpeterso@plains.nodak.edu
http://www.pflagsanjose.org/advocacy/hist.html
من تاريخ مؤسسة الزواج -في الغرب- - Arabia Felix - 12-12-2005
very little information :(
i was thinking of translating this article and oublish it on Josor next month :(
(f) thank you my dear :kiss2:
من تاريخ مؤسسة الزواج -في الغرب- - skeptic - 12-13-2005
Hello Felixi,
First, sorry for your disappointment with the briefness of the article.In fact, it is not even an article and lacks the analytic nature and thoroughness I assume you are looking for.It is just a short abstract highlighting some of the pit stops of the long,painfull and hard way travelled by the institution of marriage.I will search my university's database to see if I can access some more detailed and comprehensive papers tackling this issue
In the mean time,I will try to make it up for you .The next abstract is a summary of a very important paper written by a prominent demographer and social scientists,whose cardinal focus is women in our region.He has devoted a significant part of his time to study their problems.He seems to me well-acquainted with the cultural ,religious and social particularities of our Arabic societies.A friend of mine had been to one of his talks and she told me he is very gentle and sincere;a charming and giving persona as she put it.I highly recommend you get into contact with him if you find that he can be of any use to your line of work.
Cheers
(f)
من تاريخ مؤسسة الزواج -في الغرب- - skeptic - 12-13-2005
Women in Arab countries: challenging the patriarchal system?
Fargues P.
Euro-Mediterranean Consortium for Applied Research on International Migration, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute, Florence, Italy. philippe.fargues@iue.it
Progress in the empowerment of Arab women was found to be low in a 2002 report. Yet Arab women's status is not reflected in continuing high fertility, which in 2000 had dropped sharply in one generation to 3.4. This paper discusses why fertility decline could nevertheless have taken place in the Arab countries. Islam has not stood in the way of fertility decline, as Iran and Algeria show. From the mid- 1970s to 1980s, subsidised consumption through oil wealth redistribution reduced the cost of children, and social conservatism kept married women out of the labour force, both of which promoted higher fertility. The early stages of fertility decline were mainly due to longer length of education of girls, rising female age at first marriage, e.g. 28 in urban Morocco and 29 in Libya, and entry into the labour force of young, single women. There is also a growing population sub-group of never-married young women. Collapsing oil prices and structural adjustment reduced household resources and became an effective fertility regulation factor. Girls born since the 1950s have not only been educated longer than their mothers, but also their fathers, which increases their authority. These factors, and women's activism and civil and political lobbying for the reform of personal status now underway in a number of Arab countries, could all challenge the patriarchal system.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.f...96&query_hl=100
من تاريخ مؤسسة الزواج -في الغرب- - Arabia Felix - 12-14-2005
اقتباس: skeptic كتب/كتبتyour recommend is order my dear :D
.I highly recommend you get into contact with him
about the arab women report of 2002, i had a chance to go through it. i beleive i wrote about it some where, which i can't remember :(
Big kiss my sweetie :kiss2: